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Who is Who in Italian History This Site was inspired by the many requests for information. ​I will add prominent people as time allows Carlo Cafiero Camillo Benso, Conte di Cavour Vittorio Emanuele Orlando Nicola Fabrizi Luigi Facta Giovanni Giolitti Benito Mussolini Dante Alighieri Italian Prime Ministers Italian Presidents Home

Republic of San Marino Area: 24 sq mi (61 km2) – Population: 34,0170 (est. 2021) Italy Coat of Arms San Marino Flag San Marino, which capital has the same name, is located app. 80 mi (129 km) south east of Bologna and 146 mi ( 236 km) due east of Florence. It is a microstate embedded within Italy and is an independent republic which is governed by a unicameral “Grand and General Council” of 60 members, who elects a Congress of State, a council of 10 elected by and among the members of the Grand and General Council, and 2 captains regents, who are elected by the Grand and General Council for a term of 6 months. The elections take place on April 1 and October 1 of each year, a tradition that dates back to the 13th century. San Marino gained independence from the Roman empire in ca. 300 and established its constitution around 1600. The main political parties are the Repubblica Futura (Future Republic), Civica 10 (Civic 10), the Partito Democratico Cristiano (Christian Democratic Party). San Marino is considered to be a tax haven and its principal economy is driven by banking, agriculture products, wine and collectible stamps. The per-capita GDP puts San Marino 20th in the world with over $59,000 per person (2020 est.) *1) . The Vistas and Landscaping are breathtaking and visiting SanMarino is a unique experience setting you back to the 15th century. San Marino Map San Marino City Ara dei Volontari San Marino Castle Regions

Lombards The LOMBARDS arrived in Italy in 568, after the Ostrogoths -another Germanic power-. Their control soon spread from the north to Tuscany and Umbria, although much of southern and eastern Italy remained in Byzantine hands. Their control soon spread from the north to Tuscany and Umbria, although much of southern and eastern Italy remained in Byzantine hands. By the end of the 7th century, papal resistance had induced the Lombards to consolidate their power in central and northern Italy, where they achieved political unification. Meanwhile, the unrest in the Byzantine centers in the south reflected the disturbances taking place in Byzantium itself, and popular revolts broke out in Rome, Naples, Venice, and in other regions. ​ However, by 728, the Lombards, under Liutprand (r.712-44), extended their influence in spite of strong papal attempts at intervention. During Liutprand’s reign, many of the Lombards converted from ARIANISM to Roman Catholicism. At this time they were accepting many other elements of Roman culture, including the Latin language. Their laws and administration reflected both Roman and Germanic influences. Source : Image – commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Italiabizantino-lombarda-pt.svg Italy's History

History of Rome There is no consensus about the actual origin of the name "Rome" among historians. There are several versions of the origin of the name and the founding of the city. One that emanated from the Greek mythology of Aeneas and one that reconciled the Greek version with the Italian accounting of the twin brothers Romulus and Remus. According to Roman historians, the city of ROME was founded by the twin brothers Romulus and Remus on April 21, 753 BC. Rome was located on the Tiber River about 15 miles inland from the Mediterranean Sea. The Romans had easy access to the sea, and were somewhat protected from seaborne invasion. Also, Rome lay in the middle of the Italian peninsula, the boot-shaped landmass to the west of Greece. ​ After the expulsion of the last of these kings, the power of the Etruscans declined as the Romans began the unification of Italy. ​ ​This process reached its final stage when the right of Roman citizenship was extended throughout Italy in 89 BC, and with the subsequent diffusion of Roman institutions and culture from the Alps to Sicily, and Latin as the general language. ​ ​ The myth goes that lupa, a she-wolf nursed and sheltered the twin-brothers Romulus and Remus after they were abandoned in the wild by order of King Amulius of Alba Longa. She cared for the infants at her den, a cave known as the Lupercal, until they were discovered by a shepherd, Faustulus.The twin brothers Romulus and Remus were purported to be sons of Rhea Silvia and fathered by either Mars, the god of war, or the demigod hero Hercules. Romulus and Remus They were abandoned at birth, in the manner of many mythological heroes, because of a prophecy that they would overthrow their great-uncle Amulius, who had overthrown Silvia's father Numitor. Contrary to their orders, the twins were abandoned on the river Tiber by servants who took pity on the infants. The twins were nurtured by a she-wolf until a shepherd named Faustulus found the boys and took them in as his sons. Faustulus and his wife Acca Larentia raised the children. When Remus and Romulus became adults, they killed Amulius and restored Numitor. They decided to establish a city. Each of them took auspices, then quarrelled over the result. Romulus and his followers began to establish city walls on his favoured hill, the Palatine. Remus wanted to found the city on the Aventine Hill. In the commonest version, according to Livy, Remus slighted Romulus' wall by leaping over it, and was killed, either by his twin or his twin's followers. In the following Romulus name the city after himself. Thus, Rome began with divisions and a fratricide, a story that was later taken to represent the city's history of internecine political strife and bloodshed. Italy's History

Early Italy Excavations throughout Italy and Sicily have surfaced evidence of human activity dating back to the Paleolithic period (also called “Old Stone Age”. The Paleolithic period is referring to the period between 200,000 and 2.5Million years ago). It is also referred to the Mesolithic period (also called the “Middle Stone Age”).The word Mesolithic usually refers specifically to a development in northwestern Europe that began about 8000 BC, and lasted until about 2700 BC. ​ By the beginning of the Neolithic period, (the period following the Mesolithic period, during which men became herdsmen and cultivators, and modifiers of their environment, and the social structure became more complex), the small communities of hunters of earlier times had been replaced by agricultural settlements, with some stock breeding and widespread use of stone implements and pottery. Painted vessels that seem to have been influenced by contemporary styles originating in Greece, have been found at Castellaro Vecchio on the island of Lipari. Image Reference: https://www.invaluable.com/auction-lot/ancient-greek-painted-terra-cotta-vessel-7104-c-a1d4dba8ed Credits: L. Bernabò Brea, M. Cavalier – Meligunìs Lipàra VIII – Parte I Salina. Ricerche archeologiche (1989-1993), con appendici di J.L. Williams e S. Levi, M.C. Martinelli. pp. 1-190; Parte II di A. Pagliara, Fonti per la storia dell’arcipelago Eoliano in età greca, pp.1-129. Palermo 1995. Italy's History

Italy Facts and Figures The Republic of Italy Name : Italy/Italia | Italian Republic/Repubblica Italiana AREA : 116,348 square miles – 301,000 sq. km (world comparison: 73) 97.6% land, 2.4% water Land use: agriculture - 47.1% (2018 est) forest - 31.4% (2018 est) Other - 21.5% (2018 est) Border line 1,148 mi (1,836 km) -Austria (253 mi/404 km), France (298 mi/476 km), Vatican (2.1 mi/3.4 km), San Marino (23 mi/37 km), Slovenia (136 mi/218 km), Switzerland (436 mi/698 km) POPULATION : (Jan-2022 est.) : 61.1 million World rank: 23 Birth rate: 6.95/1,000 Death rate: 11.3/1,000 Ages 13.5% less than 15 yrs. old 64.5% ages 15 – 65 22% over 65 Life expectancy (at birth) male: 80.3 yrs​ female: 85.1 yrs Total: 82.6 yrs 72% Urban, 29% Rural (2022 est) Rome: 4.3 mil, Milan: 3.2 mil, Naples: 2.2 mil, Turin: 0.9 mil, Palermo: 0.9 mil​ 488 People/sq mile (189/ sq. Km) Ethnic Groups Italian, small minorities German, French, Slovene, Albanian and Greek LANGUAGES : I talian (small sections speak German or Slovene) CAPITAL, REGIONS AND MAJOR CITIES (2019 est.) Rome – 2.9 million (Capital) Milan – 3.1 million Naples – 2.2 million Turin – 1.8 million 15 regions Abruzzo, Basilicata, Calabria, Campania, Emilia-Romagna, Lazio (Latium), Liguria, Lombardia, Marche, Molise, Piemonte (Piedmont), Puglia (Apulia), Toscana (Tuscany), Umbria, Veneto​ 5 autonomous regions ​Friuli Venezia Giulia, Sardegna (Sardinia), Sicilia (Sicily), Trentino-Alto Adige (Trentino-South Tyrol) or Trentino-Suedtirol (German), Valle d'Aosta (Aosta Valley)​ ECONOMY / GDP : $2.3 trill (GDP/ capita; Agriculture-9%; Industry & Commerce-32%; Services Exports $496 B Partners Germany 12.5% France 10.3% US 9% Spain 5.2% UK 5.2% Switzerland 4.6% Imports $ 433 B Partners Germany 16.3% France 8.8% China 7.1% Netherlands 5.6% Spain 5.3% Belgium 4.5% Tourism $ 24 B National Budget Revenues – $903 B Expenditures – $948 B RELIGION Christian – 80.8% (mostly Roman Catholic) Muslim – 4.9% Unaffiliated – 13.4% ​Other – 0.9% EDUCATION Education expenditure: 4.3% of GDP Literacy (2020 est.) ​Education is free and compulsory for ages 6-13 99.2% of adult population is literate 90 Universities (2017 est.) ​ ​HEALTH Hospital Beds – 3.12 per 1,000 population Physicians – 4 per 1,000 population (2020 est.) Infant Mortality – 2.43 per 1,000 population GOVERNMENT Parlamentary Republic Capital: Rome (standard time: 6 hours ahead of New York) Cabinet President (Chief of State) : Sergio Mattarella (independent) – born 7/23/1941, elected on January 31, 2015, succeeding President Giorgio Napolitano, who resigned on 1/14/2015. The President is elected for a 7-year term by an electoral college consisting of both houses of Parliament and 58 regional representatives. President Mattarella was re-elected on January 29, 2022 Cabinet Prime Minister (Head of Government) : Giorgia Meloni , born 15 January 1977, has been serving as the prime minister of Italy since 22 October 2022, the first woman to hold this position. A member of the Chamber of Deputies since 2006, she has led the Brothers of Italy (FdI) political party since 2014, and she has been the president of the European Conservatives and Reformists Party since 2020. Governing Coalition (2022) Giorgia Meloni FdI Matteo Salvini LN Silvio Berlusconi FI Matteo Salvini and Silvio Berlusconi are Deputy Prime Ministers, each with the official title of Vice President of the Council of Ministers. Cabinet Referred to as Council of Ministers, nominated by the Prime Minister and approved by the President. ​ Legislature Bicameral Legislature or “Parlamento” consists of the Senate or “Senato” holding 326 seats, 315 elected by popular vote of which 232 are directly elected and 83 are elected by regional proportional representation, and 11 senators are appointed for-life. Members serve five-year terms. ​ Chamber of Deputies or “Camera dei Deputati” holding 630 seats, 475 members are elected directly and 155 are elected by regional proportional representation. Members serve five-year terms Political Division ​20 regions with, some autonomy, divided into 95 provinces. ​ Political Parties (2022 elections 9/25/2022, next on 9/30/2027) Governing Coalition (Center Right) : Brothers of Italy (FdI 65 seats) - Giorgia Meloni, Council Chair/Prime Minister), Northern League (Lega Nord 30 seats or Lega) - Matteo SALVINI, Forza Italia (FI 18 seats) - Silvio Berlusconi. Center - Left-Coalition: Democratic Party (PD 40 seats) - Valentina Cuppi Alleanza Verdi e Sinistra (AVS 3 seats) - Angelo Bonelli/Nicola Fratoianni Muovimento 5 Stelle (M5S 28 seats) - Beppe Grillo Italia Viva (IV 9 seats) - Matteo Renzi Südtiroler Volkspartei (South Tyrolean People’s Party / SVP 2 seats) - Philipp Achammer Sud chiama Nord (South calls North/SCN 1 seat) - Cateno De Luca Other Parties and Parliamentary Groups: Action (Azione/A o Az) - Carlo Calenda Article One (Articolo Uno/Art.1 ) - Roberto Speranza Associative Movement of Italians Abroad (Movimento Associativo Italiani all'Estero, MAIE ) - Ricardo Antonio Merlo August 24th Movement (Movimento 24 Agosto/M24A) - Pino Aprile Base Camp (Campobase) - Micheal Rech Centrists for Europe (Centristi per l'Europa/CpE) - Pier Ferdinanco Casini Courage Italy (Coraggio Italia/CI) - Luigi Brugnaro Democratic Center (Centro Democratico/CD) - Bruno Tabacci Fassa Association (Associazione Fassa/Fassa) - Francesco Pitscheider Free and Equal (Liberi e Uguali/LeU) - Pietro Grasso Green Europe (Europa Verde/EV) - Marco Boato/Fiorella Zabatta Italian Left (Sinistra Italiana/SI) - Maria Gabriella Branca Italy in the Center (Italia al Centro/IaC) - Giovanni Toti It is Alive (èViva) - Francesco Laforgia More Europe (+EU/Piu Europa) - Emma Bonino New Italian Socialist Party (Nuovo Partito Socialista Italiano/NPSI) - Stefano Caldoro Popular Civic List (Civica Populare/CP) - Beatrice Lorenzin Possible (Possibile/Pos) - Beatrice Brignone Progressive Party (Partito Progressista) - Massimo Zedda Solidary Democracy (Democrazia Solidale/Demo S) - Mario Giro Trentino Tyrolean Autonomist Party (Partito Autonomista Trentino Tirolese/PATT) - Franco Panizza Union of the Center (Unione di Centro/UdC) - Antonio de Poli Us with Italy (Noi con L'Italia/NcI) - Maurizio Lupi Valdostan Union (Union valdôtaine/UV) - Christina Machet Will Become very Beautiful (Diventerà Bellissima) - Nello Musumeci Political Influencers The Roman Catholic Church; Workers Union (Confederazione Generale Italiana del Lavoro/CGIL) , left wing, Italian Confederation of Workers' Trade Unions (Confederazione Italiana dei Sindacati Lavoratori or CISL) , Catholic centrist (Centristi Cattolici) Italian Labor Union (Unione Italiana del Lavoro/UIL) , Italian manufacturers and merchants associations (Confederazione Industria, Confederazione Commercio) ; Organized farm groups (Confederazione Coltivatori, Confederazione Agricoltura) Voting Qualification Universal voting rights for all citizens age 18 and older ​ Judicial Branch/Highest Court Constitutional Court Supreme Court of Cassation or Corte Costituzionale, composed of 15 judges One-third appointed by the president One-third elected by Parliament One-third elected by the ordinary and administrative supreme courts Armed Services​ (2021 est) Mandatory 12-month service by men ages 18 -25 Budget: $32 B (1.5% of GDP) Army – 97,000​ Navy – 29,500 Air Force – 40,500 Paramilitary – 174,000 (Carabinieri, Guardia di Finanza) Reserve: 18,300 Transportation​ Air (2017 est.) : Airports – 134 Paved – 98 Unpaved – 31 Heliports – 5 Registered Air Carriers Scheduled airlines - 3 (Air Dolomiti, ITA Airways, Neos) Charter airlines - 39 (Aer Sicilia, Aeroitalia, AF Air, Air Corporate, Air Four, Air Panarea, Air Service Center, Air Walser, Airaia, Airgreen, Alba Servizi Aerotrasporti, Alidaunia, Alieurope, Aliparma, Aliven, Avionord, Avioriprese, Benair, Compagnia Generale Ripreseaeree, Eas Aeroservizi, Elicar, Elilario Italia, Elitaliana, Elitellina, Elilombarda, Elimediterranea, Eliossola, Elifriulia, Eurofly Service, Fly Jet, Icaro Aero Taxi, Jetcom, Jet-Ops Europe, PeopleFly, Professione Volare, Sardinian Sky Service, Sirio, Sirio Executive, Star Work Sky) Cargo Airlines - 4 (AirCargo Airlines, Cargolux Italia, Poste Air Cargo, Sw Italia) Annual passengers on registered aircraft – 26 million Annual freight on registered aircraft – 945 million metric ton kilometers Air Traffic through busiest Italian airports (2020 data reflecting a 60% decrease impact due to pandemic) ​​ Rome - 9.7 mil Milan (MXP) - 7.2 mil Bergamo - 3.8 mil ​ Catania - 3.6 mil Venice - 2.7 mil Rail (2014 est.) : 12,541 mi (20,182 km) tracks Standard Gauge – 11,663 mi (18,770 km) Narrow gauge – 76 mi (122 km) Roadways (2007 est.) : 303,000 mi (487,700 km) Waterways (2012 est.) : 1,490 mi (2,400 km) Merchant Marine (2019 est.) : 1,353 Bulk carrier – 48 Container ships – 9 General cargo – 116 Oil tankers – 120 Other – 1,060 Ports and Terminals (2017 est.) : Major seaports Augusta (East coast of Sicily) Cagliari (Sardegna) Genova (province of Liguria) Livorno (South West of Pisa) Taranto (Southern Italy – bay inside the “boot”) Trieste (close to Venice, bordering Croatia) Venice Oil Terminal Melilli (East coast of Sicily) Sarroch (near Cagliari, Sardinia) Container Ports (in twenty-foot equivalent unit, also referred to as TEU or teu) Genova – 2.6 million Gioia Tauro 2.5 million (province of Reggio Calabria) LNG Terminals (Liquefied Natural Gas) La Spezia (North East of Florence) Panigaglia (South of La Spezia) Porto Levante (South of Venice) Refugees and Illegal Immigration Given its geographic location and long coastlines, especially to the South facing North Africa, Italy has historically been a favored destination for refugees, embarking often on unsafe small vessels attempting to make their journey from or via North Africa to the Southern coast of Italy. Many attempts result in fatalities. Between 2015 and 2018, an estimated 504,000 refugees and migrants landed at the Southern Italian coast, predominantly originating from Nigeria, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Mali, Somalia, Gambia, Ukraine, Senegal, Cote d’Ivoire, and Eritrea. References: CIA World Facts, www.governo.it Home

Risorgimento The repressive and reactionary policies imposed on Italy by the Austrian leader Klemens, Fürst von Metternich, and the Congress of Vienna aggravated popular discontent, and the expansion of Austrian control in Italy stimulated intense anti-foreign sentiment. ​ A series of unsuccessful revolts led in the 1820s by the Carbonari, a conspiratorial nationalist organization, and in the 1830s by Mazzini’s Young Italy group, provided the background for the Revolution of 1848, which developed in every major Italian city and throughout Europe. These conditions gave rise to the Italian unification movement known as the Risorgimento. Revolutionaries and patriots, especially Giuseppe Mazzini, began to work actively for unity and independence. Italy's History

Italian Unification (detailed version) 1672-1803 Muratori, Alfieri and Genovesi ignite the fire of revolution. 1796 Milan is occupied by the French under French General Napoleon Bonaparte who founds the Cispadane Republic (including Modena, Bologna, and Ferrara). 1797 Pope submits to Bonaparte; Uprisings against French in Verona; French enter Venice; Cisalpine Republic established in Lombardy; Venice given to Austria. 1798 Roman Republic declared; Ferdinand IV enters Rome (later retaken by French); Abdication of Charles Emmanuel IV of Savoy. 1799 French occupation of Naples; Milan taken by Russians; Austrians enter Turin; Naples capitulates to Bourbons. 1801 Napoleon occupies Milan; Kingdom of Etruria founded by Napoleon in Tuscany; Treaty of Florence between France and Naples. 1802 Cisalpine Republic called Italian Republic; France annexes Piedmont. 1805 Napoleon crowns himself King of Italy; Ligurian Republic annexed to France; also Parma and Piacenza. 1806 Venetia annexed to Kingdom of Italy; Joseph Bonaparte declared King of the Two Sicilies. 1808 Joachim Murat becomes King of Naples; Papal States partly annexed to Kingdom of Italy. 1809 Napoleon annexes Rome and Papal States to French empire. 1814 Napoleon defeated; banished to Elba. 1820 Revolt in Naples. 1821 Revolt in Piedmont. 1831 Revolution in the Papal States; King Charles Albert becomes King of Sardinia; “Young Italy” founded by Mazzini. 1845 Pius IX becomes Pope. 1848 Uprisings in Palermo; Constitutional edict in Naples; Constitutional monarchy proclaimed in Piedmont; Constitution granted in Rome, Republic proclaimed with Mazzini as head. Successful revolution in Milan; Venice proclaimed a Republic; Charles Albert [Piedmont and Sardinia] invades Lombardy; Tuscan forces invade Lombardy; Naples constitution denied; Union of Venetia and Piedmont declared, soon overthrown; Battle of Custoza, Charles Albert defeated. 1849 Charles Albert abdicates in favor of Victor Emmanuel II; Sicilian revolution crushed by Naples; Austrians take Florence; Venice surrenders to Austria. 1850 Cavour becomes Prime Minister in Sardinia-Piedmont (Piemonte). 1852 Napoleon III becomes emperor of France. 1858 Meeting of Cavour and Napoleon III. 1859 War between Austria and Sardinia Piedmont; Austria defeated by Piemontese and French; Sardinia gains Lombardy. 1860 Tuscany and Emilia declare for union with Sardinia-Piedmont; Revolution in Sicily, Garibaldi lands and is victorious; invades Italy and gains victory; enters Naples Piemontese army under Victor Emmanuel take over from Garibaldi; Marche and Umbria vote for annexation to Piedmonte. 1861 Sicily and Naples vote to join Kingdom of Italy; Kingdom of Italy proclaimed. 1866 Italy joins Prussia in War against Austria; gains Venetia; 1870 Italian troops occupy Rome when French abandon city; 1871 (July) Rome made Capital of Kingdom ​ During the 18th century, intellectual changes began to dismantle traditional values and institutions. Liberal ideas from France and Britain spread rapidly, and from 1789 the French Revolution became the genesis of “liberal Italians”. A series of political and military events resulted in a unified kingdom of Italy in 1861. The settlements reached in 1815 at the Vienna Congress had restored Austrian domination over the Italian peninsula but had left Italy completely fragmented . The Congress had divided the territory among a number of European nations and the victors of the Napoleonic Wars. The Kingdom of Sardinia recovered Piedmont (Piemonte), Nice, and Savoy and acquired Genoa. ​ There were three major obstacles to unity at the time the congress took place, i.e. (a) the Austrian occupation of Lombardy and Venice in the north, (b) the principality under the sovereignty of the pope, i.e. the Papal States that controlled the center of the Italian peninsula; and (c) the existence of various states that had maintained independence, such as the Kingdom of Sardinia, also called Piedmont-Sardinia, which located at the French border had slowly expanded since the Middle Ages and was considered the most advanced state in Italy. The Kingdom of Sardinia consisted of the island of Sardinia and the region called Piedmont in northwestern Italy. The Kingdom of Sicily that occupied the island of Sicily and the entire southern half of the Italian peninsula . Other small states were the duchies of Toscana (Tuscany), Parma, and Modena. In each of these states, the monarchs (all relatives of the Habsburgs, the ruling family of Austria) exercised absolute powers of government. Giuseppe Mazzini Giuseppe Mazzini, an Italian patriot spearheaded a national revolutionary movement. Mazzini’s ideology of an independent integrated republic spread quickly among large segments of the Italian people. Revolutionary cells formed throughout the Italian peninsula. Massive reforms that took place during the 1840s in the Papal States, Lucca, Tuscany, and the Kingdom of Sardinia were intended to slow the revolutionary movements, instead these reforms (1846 and 1847) only intensified the resolve of the revolutionary cells culminating in the Revolutions of 1848, that spread to Germany, the Austrian Empire, France, and parts of northern Italy. ​ The first revolution on the Italian peninsula took place in the Kingdom of Sicily, which resulted in a constitution for the whole kingdom. An insurrection in 1848 caused pope Pius IX to flee Rome and a republic was proclaimed. King Charles Albert of Sardinia mobilized his army and marched to the assistance of Lombardy and joined in the war to drive the Austrians from Italian soil. ​ ​While it initially looked as if the independence and unity of Italy was a realistic possibility, the Austrians defeated the Piedmontese and Charles Albert had to abdicate. His son, Victor Emmanuel II, succeeded him in 1849. A new revolutionary leader, Giuseppe Garibaldi, could not avoid Rome’s destruction by the French in 1849. Only Sardinia held firm to their constitutional government. Count Camillo di Cavour became prime minister of the Kingdom of Sardinia In 1852 . It was his leadership and accommodating policies that led to the unification of Italy in little more than a decade. ​ Count of Cavour Cavour was able to persuade Napoleon to a secretly planned war against Austria. By early 1859, Cavour had caused a crisis that provoked the Austrians to send an ultimatum demanding Piedmontese disarmament. As part of the “plan”, Cavour rejected the ultimatum which led to the subsequent war with the Austrians.The French came to the aid of the Piedmontese and the Austrians were defeated in the two major battles of Magenta and Solferino. The Austrians were forced to surrender Lombardy, with its great city of Milan (my home town), to Napoleon III. Finally, in 1859, Napoleon transferred Lombardy to the sovereignty of Victor Emmanuel II. Following elections during 1859 and 1860, all northern states (of the Italian peninsula), except Venetia, which was still part of Austria, joined the Kingdom of Sardinia. Napoleon’s growing concern with respect to the sudden (large) size of his neighbor was resolved in part by the cessation of the Sardinian provinces of Savoy, near the Alps, and Nice, on the Mediterranean coast to France in 1860 . After 1860, the only French presence on the Italian peninsula was in the city of Rome, where French troops remained at the request of the pope. Giuseppe Garibaldi Italian nationalist revolutionary hero and leader in the struggle for Italian unification and independence. Born in 1807 in Nice, France, he joined Mazzini’s movement in 1833. In 1834 Garibaldi was ordered to seize a warship, but the plot was discovered by police and he was condemned to death. Giuseppe Garibaldi He escaped to South America, where he lived for 12 years. There he displayed unusual qualities of military leadership while participating in the revolt of the state of Rio Grande do Sul against Brazil, as well as later in a civil war in Uruguay. In 1848, Garibaldi traveled to the United States settled in Staten Island, New York, and later became a US citizen. ​ During the same year he returned to Italy and participated (again) in the movement for Italian freedom and unification, which became widely known as the Risorgimento (Italian for “revival”). Italy's History

Holy Roman Empire European Dynasties 962-1946) ​​European Dynasties 962-1946 The (second) medieval revival of the Western Roman Empire was referred to as The Holy Roman Empire which lasted from 962 AD to 1806. By the year 1250, much of its power had vanished and by ca. 1650 the empire had lost virtually all power. Nevertheless, the Empire endured until 1806, when it was abolished by Emperor Francis II. ​ Francis II ruled thereafter as Francis I of the Austrian Empire (established in 1804). Usually, the king of Germany became emperor -considered by Europeans the title of most prestige- as soon as he was crowned by the pope. ​ Given the many successes of the dukes of Saxony in fighting the Hungarians during the 10th century, most were chosen kings of Germany. The first Saxonian to become king was Henry the Fowler (919-936). He was followed by his son Otto who became King Otto I in 936 and the first Holy Roman Emperor from 962 to 973. Saxon Dynasty Franconian (Salian) Dynasty 962-973 973-983 983-1002 1002-1024 Otto I Otto II Otto III HenryII 1027-1039 1046-1056 1056-1106 1106-1125 1125-1137 Conrad II Henry III Henry IV Henry V Lothar II Hohenstaufen Dynasty Henry V’s nephews, The Hohenstaufen of Swabia were not always supported by the Church who favored candidates of the “Guelph” i.e. the “Welf” family of Bavaria and Saxony. The on-going feud between these families and the intervention of the papacy drastically weakened the empire, culminating in the “Age of the Princes” in Germany and the “Great Interregnum” in the Holy Roman Empire.​ 1138-1152 1152-1190 1190-1197 1198-1208 Conrad III Frederic I (Barbarossa) Henry VI Philip of Swabia The Anti King Era The "anti King" era represented a time when individuals proclaimed themselves to king and against the sitting king. This revolutionary trend lasted from 1198 through 1273 1198-1208 1208-1212 1212-1250 1250-1254 1254-1273 Otto IV Otto IV Frederick II Conrad IV Interregnum When the Empire was restored in 1273, the princes refused to establish any one dynasty and during the following 150 years, candidates from four families were elected. 1273-1291 1292-1298 1298-1308 1308-1313 1314-1346 1346-1378 1378-1400 1400-1410 1410-1437 Rudolf I (Habsburg) Adolf (Nassau) Albert I (Habsburh) Henry VII (Luxemburg) Lotus IV (Wittelsbach) Charles IV (Luxemburg Wenceslas (Luxemburg) Rupert (Wittelsbach) Sigismund (Luxemburg) Kings of Italy The House of Habsburg (who derived its name from their castle “Habichtsburg” in Switzerland), was the most illustrious European dynasty. Beginning in the 15th century, the Habsburgs became hereditary rulers of the Empire. Through a sequence of “strategic marriages” they gained (by inheritance) the Netherlands, the Spanish kingdoms and Spain’s Empire in the “New World”, Hungary and Bohemia. The Habsburgs 1440-1493 1440-1493 1493-1519 1519-1556 1556-1564 1564-1576 1576-1612 1612-1619 1619-1637 1637-1657 1658-1705 1705-1711 1711-1740 1740-1742 1742-1745 Albert II Frederick III Maximilian I Charles V Ferdinand I Maximilian II Rudolf mII Mattias Ferdinand II Ferdinand III Leopold I Joseph I Charles VI Interregnum Charles VII The Habsburgs - Lorraine 1745-1765 1765-1790 1790-1792 1792-1806 Francis I Joseph II Leopold II Francis II House of Savoy Carignano King of Italy Piemonte, Nice and Sardinia were ruled by the Dukes of Savoy until the year 1831. This line died out and a very distant cousin, Carlo Alberto (Charles Albert) ascended to the throne. His son, Vittorio Emanuele II (Victor Emmanuel the 2nd) of Savoy led the armies that conquered what is now known as Italy over the years 1858 through 1871. As a consequence, Vittorio Emanuele was proclaimed King of Italy in 1861; a dynasty that would fall with the end of WW2. 1861-1878 1878-1900 1900-1946 1946-1946 Victor Emmanuel II (Umberto) Humbert I Victor Emmanuel III Humbert II Italy's History

Roman Emperors Roman Emperors 27 B.C. - A.D. 1453 This is as a simplified timeline of all Emperors This list does not differentiate between Western and Eastern emperors, nor does it sub-divide the various dynasties. Repetitive years indicate concurrent emperors in the two regions. 27 BC-14 AD 14 – 37 ​37 – 41 ​41 – 54 54 – 68 68 – 69 69 69 69 – 79 79 – 81 81 – 96 96 – 98 98 – 117 117 – 138 138 – 161 161 – 169 169 – 177 177 – 180 180 – 192 193 193 193 – 198 211 – 212 212 – 217 217 – 218 218 – 222 222 – 235 235 – 238 238 238 238 – 244 244 – 249 249 – 251 251 251 – 253 253 253 – 260 253 – 268 268 – 270 270 – 275 275 – 276 276 276 – 282 282 – 283 283 – 284 284 – 305 305-306 305-311 306-337 306-307 306-312 308-324 310-313 316-317 324 337-340 337-361 337-350 350 361-363 363-364 364-375 364-378 367-383 375-392 379-395 384-388 384-387 392-394 395-423 407-411 409-411 421 423-425 425-455 455 455-456 457-461 461-465 467-472 472 473-474 474-475 475-476 395-408 408-450 450-457 457-474 474 474-491 475-476 475-476 491-518 518-527 527-565 565-578 578-582 582-602 602-610 610-641 641 641 641-668 668-685 685-695 695-698 698-705 705-711 711-713 713-715 715-717 717-741 741-775 741-743 780-797 775-780 797-802 802-811 811 811-813 813-820 820-829 829-842 842-867 867-886 886-912 912-913 913-959 920-945 959-963 963-969 969-976 976-1025 1025-1028 1028-1034 1034-1041 1041-1042 1042-1056 1042-1055 1056-1057 1057-1059 1059-1067 1067-1078 1068-1071 1078-1081 1081-1118 1118-1143 1143-1180 1180-1183 1183-1185 1185-1195 1195-1203 1203-1204 1203-1204 1204 1205-1221 1221-1254 1254-1258 1258-1261 1259-1282 1282-1328 1295-1320 1328-1341 1341-1376 1347-1357 1376-1379 1379-1390 1390- 1390-1391 1391-1425 1425-1448 1449-1453 ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, Augustus Tiberius ​Caligula Claudius ​Nero ​Galba Otho Vitellius ​Vespasian ​Titus ​Domitian ​Nerva ​Trajan ​Hadrian Antonius Pius ​Marcus Aurelius & Lucius Verus ​Marcus Aurelius Marcus Aurelius & Comodus ​Comodus Pertinax ​Didius Julianus Septimius Severus ​Carcalla & Geta Carcalla Macrinus ​Heliogabalus ​Severus Alexander ​Maximinus Gordian I & Gordian II ​Pupienus Maximus & Balbinus ​Gordian III ​Philip ​Decius ​Hostilianus ​Gallus Aemilianus ​Valerian & Gallienus ​Gallienus ​Claudius II ​Aurelian ​Tacitus ​Florianus Probus ​Carus ​Carinus & Numerianus Dioclesian Constantius ​Galerius ​Constantine I Severus Maxentius ​Licinius ​Maximinus Daia ​Valerius Valens ​Martinian ​Constantine II (Flavius Claudius) Constantine II (Flavius Julius) ​Constans ​Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I ​Valens Gratian Valentinian II ​Theodosius ​Magnus Maximus Victor Eugenius ​Honorius Constantine III ​Constans II Constantius III Joannes ​Valentinian III ​Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius ​Glycerius Julius Nepus Romulus Augustus ​Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian ​Leo the Thracian Leo II ​Zeno ​Basilicus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus ​Justin I ​Justinian I ​Justin II Tiberius II (Constantine) Mauricius & Theodosius ​Focas ​Heraclius Constantine III Heraclonas & Tiberius Constans II Constantine IV & Heraclius Justinian II ​Leontios Tiberius III ​Justinian II & Tiberius ​Filepicus ​Anastasios II ​Theodosius III ​Leo III Constantine V ​Artabasdos & Nikephoros Leo IV ​Constantine VI ​Irene of Athens Nikephoros I ​Staurakios ​Michael I & Theophylact ​Leo V & Constantine ​Michael II Theophilos Michael III ​Basil I ​Leo VI ​Alexander ​Constantine VII Lekapenos (family of 4) ​Romanos II Nikephoros II ​John I Tzimiskes ​Basil II ​Constantine VIII Romanos III Michael IV Michael V ​Theodora Porphyrogenita ​Constantine IX Michael VI Isaac I Constantine X ​Doukas (family of 4) ​Romanos IV Nikephoros III Alexios I & Constantine ​John II & Alexios ​Manuel I Alexios II Andronikos I & John Isaac II Alexios III ​Isaac II ​Alexios IV ​Alexios V ​Theodore I John III Theodore II ​John IV Michael VIII ​Andronikos II Michael IX Andronikos III​ ​John V ​John VI Andronikos IV John V​ ​John VII John V Palaiologos (family of 3) ​John VIII ​Constantine XI Italy's History

Who is Who in Italian History Nicola Fabrizi 1804 - 1885 Nicola Fabrizi, was born April 4 1804 in Modena Italy. (Some sources date Fabrizi’s birthday March 31, 1804.) He is considered to be one of the most dedicated leaders of Italy’s early Risorgimento movement, the movement aimed at Italy’s unification. He inspired democratic ideas throughout his life, and was instrumental in planning Milan’s unsuccessful attempt of rising against Austria in 1831. Fabrizi was arrested after participating in Ciro Menotti’s unsuccessful ” conspiracy ” to revive the revolution in Modena. One year later he was freed and exiled to Marseille, France where he joined the ” Giovine Italia ” movement, led by Mazzini. After participating in the unsuccessful uprising in Savoy he again was forced to flee first to Spain and later to Malta where he founded the ” Legione Italica “. He later joined Garibaldi’s movement who appointed him to his Secretary of War. ​After the unification he was promoted to General and was elected to house of representatives. Who is Who

Italian Regions Italy is divided into 20 regions which are sub-divided into 107 provinces. Italy's population of 58.98 million lives in 7,904 cities/communities. There are over 1,000 rivers i.e. bodies of water, and most of the Italian peninsula is surrounded by oceans. Italy encompasses an area of 116,630 square miles (302,069 km 2). Italy's capital is Rome, in the province of Lazio. Between 2013 and 2020, Italy's population declined by over 1.5 million, predominantly due to significant reduction in the birth rate. Each region has its particular personality, and its people cherish their traditions and quite divers cultures. We all know how good Italian food is, however, it should be noted that there is no general Italian food as the culinary diversity of each region can be quite significant. Eventually I will add a food section to this web and discuss some of the many specialties of these culinary traditions, which vary not only by region but also by season. Click on any region to display detail All Numbers are 2019 estimates Region Capital Communities Area km2 mi2 Population Millions ​L’Aquila Potenza ​​Catanzaro ​Napoli Bologna ​Trieste ​Roma ​Genova Milano ​Ancona Campobasso ​Torino Bari Cagliari Palermo ​Firenze ​Trento Perugia​ ​Aosta Venezia Abruzzo Basilicata Calabria Campania Emilia -Romagna Friuli Venezia Giulia Lazio Liguria Lombardia Marche Molise Piemonte Puglia Sardegna Sicilia Toscana Trentino-Alto Adige Umbria Valle D’Aosta Veneto ​10,831 ​10,073 ​15,222 13,671 ​22,445 7,932 ​17,232 ​5,416 23,863 ​9,401 ​4,460 25,387 ​19,541 24,099 ​25,833 ​22,987 ​13,606 ​8,464 ​​3,261 18,345 ​​4,182 ​​3,889 ​​​5,877 5,278 ​​8,666 ​​3,063 ​​6,653 ​​2,091 9,214 ​​3,630 1,722 ​​9,802 ​​7,545 ​​9,305 ​​9,974 ​​8,875 5,253 ​​3,268 ​​​1,259 7,083 1.27 0.54 1.84 5.59 4.43 1.20 5.72 1.51 9.97 1.49 0.29 4.25 3.91 1.58 4.80 3.68 1.08 0.86 0.12 4.85 305 131 404 550 330 215 378 234 1,506 225 136 1,181 257 377 391 273 282 92 74 563 302,069 116,630 58.98 7,904 Special Places: Cinque Terre Rome Vaticano San Marino Source: https://www.tuttitalia.it/statistiche/ Home