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History of Italy Origin of the Name ‘Italy’ History of the Italian Language History of Italy Summarized People of Italy Early Italy Bronze Age History of Rome Roman Empire Roman Emperors Middle Ages Lombards Franks Ottonians Holy Roman Empire (European Dynasties 962-1946) Rise of the Italian City-States History of Sicily Kingdom of Sicily History of Naples Italian Renaissance & Foreign Domination Napoleonic Era in Italy Risorgimento Italy’s Unification (short versi on) Italian Unification (detailed version) Kingdom Of Italy Fascist Period World War II Postwar Italy Credits Sources: Bibliography: Burckhardt, Jakob, The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (1860; repr. 1990); Burke, Peter, A Social History of Italy, 15th to 17th Centuries (1988); Cannistraro, Philip, ed., Historical Dictionary of Fascist Italy (1982); Carpanetto, Dino, and Ricuperati, Giuseppe, Italy in the Age of Reason (1987); Coppa, Frank, ed., A Dictionary of Modern Italian History (1985); Hay, Denys, The Italian Renaissance and Its Historical Background (1961); Herlihy, David, Cities and Societies in Medieval Italy (1980)​; King, Bolton, A History of Italian Unity, 2 vols. (1927; repr. 1967); Larner, John, Italy in the Age of Dante and Petrarch (1980); Mack Smith, Denis, Italy: A Modern History, rev. ed. (1969); Potter, T. W., Roman Italy (1987); Spivey, Nigel, and Stoddard, Simon, Etruscan Italy: An Archaeological History (1992); Waley, D. P., The Italian City-Republics (1969); Wickham, Chris, Early Medieval Italy (1981); Woolf, Stuart, A History of Italy, 1700-1860 (1991); Zamagni, Vera, The Economic History of Italy, 1860-1990 (1993), research Gianni B. Arcaini; The Almanac of Records, Millennium Edition Home

Modern Italy Copyright: Gianni Arcaini Home

Molise Italy Capital: Campobasso Area: 4,460 km2 | 1,722 mi2 Population: 290,769 (2019 est) Provinces: Campobasso | Isernia ​ Rivers/Bodies of Water: Aqueous Biferno Saccione Swan Tammaro Trigno Regions

Napoleonic Era in Italy Europe was soon involved in a series of wars that eventually involved Italy. Between 1796, when troops under General Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Italy, and 1814, when they withdrew, the entire peninsula was under French domination. ​Several short-lived republics were proclaimed early in the period. After two decades of Napoleon’s modern but harsh rule, profound changes took place in Italy; many Italians began to see the possibilities of forging a united country, free of foreign control. Following the restoration of European peace in 1815, Italy consisted of the Kingdom of Sardinia (Piedmont, Sardinia, Savoy, and Genoa); the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (including Naples and Sicily); the Papal States; and Tuscany and a series of smaller duchies in north central Italy. Lombardy and Venetia were now controlled by the Austrians. Italy's History

Italian Coat of Arms Italian history is long and varied, and its symbolism and traditions are equally impressive. Italy’s current Coat of Arms dates back to 1948. At the center is a white star with a red border stemming from arms of previous kingdoms. The Big Star of Italy adorns the Italian coat of arms, signifying the nation’s power and identity. Translated to ‘Repubblica Italiana’ in Italian, this Big Star of Italy represents the immense determination held by each Italian citizen. Also portrayed on the Big Star of Italy is a Fouled Anchor that symbolizes hope and resurrection with historical roots linked to Byzantine artworks such as the ‘Agia Porphyriegene". These Latin words meaning ‘The Holy Birth-Giver’ illustrate how deeply rooted in religious beliefs Italy truly is. The Big Star undoubtedly stands for resilience, courage, and History itself – all important aspects preserved by every proud member of Repubblica Italiana. ​The tips pointing downwards symbolize Italy as a united state. During the years of the kingdom, it was referred to as the “big star of Italy”. The star was later superimposed on a gear which symbolizes work. The Italian constitution states that Italy is a country based on [common] work. The star and gear are supported by an olive branch, a symbol of peace also symbolizing the southern part of the country, and an oak branch, a symbol of strength also symbolizing the northern part of the country. A red ribbon includes the official name of the state, “REPUBBLICA ITALIANA” in white capital characters. Home

Abruzzo Italy Capital: L'Aquila Population: 1,273,660 Area: 10,832 km2 | 4,182 mi2 Provinces: ​Chieti | ​L’Aquila | ​Pescara | ​Teramo ​ Rivers/Bodies of Water: Alento ​Altosa Appeal Arielli Aterno ​Avello Aventine Bullock ​Castellano Cerepolla Chiarino ​Dendalo ​Felt Fiumicino ​Fondillo Garden ​Gizio Green ​Imele ​Leomogna ​Liri ​Mavone ​Mondragone ​Monnola ​Moro Nora ​Orfento Orte Parello Pescara Pillory Raio Rajale Rat Riano Rio Arno Rivo Sagittarius Saline Salinello Sangro Sangro lake Santerno Lake Sinello Stretchers Tavo Thassus Tirino Tordino Treste Trigno Turano Up Vandra Vella Venna Vittore Vomano Regions

THE PROBLEM OF WATER IN THE CISPADAN PLAIN: FROM DROUGHT TO MEDICANES This discussion about Romagna’s regional challenges of droughts and cyclones is an extract from and an addendum to the original book, entitled "Vivere in Romagna sott'acqua" (Living in Romagna under Water ), published in July 2022 by Osvaldo Contarini. (ISBN 978-0-578-27011-1) The Mediterranean has always been considered a rather calm sea and certainly less hostile than the oceans from a meteorological point of view. However, for about half a century, satellite images have shown around a hundred cyclonic formations originating from the southern part of the Mediterranean, sometimes with the typical appearance of a hurricane, complete with a cyclonic eye and counter-clockwise rotational movement, with winds equivalent to a Category 1 hurricane. Borrowing the term "hurricane" from English, a new word has been added to meteorological jargon: "Medicane" or Mediterranean cyclone (Hurricane). The Mediterranean has always been considered a rather calm sea and certainly less hostile than the oceans from a meteorological point of view. For nearly half a century, satellite images have consistently revealed approximately one hundred cyclonic formations originating from the southern Mediterranean region. Their appearance mimics that of a hurricane - circular eye and rotational movement in a counter-clockwise direction - and packs Category 1 hurricane-strength winds. Borrowing the term "hurricane" from English, a new word has been added to meteorological jargon: "Medicane" or Mediterranean cyclone (Hurricane). Cyclone Ianos (September 17, 2020), originating from Libya, between Greece and Italy (source: Wikipedia). In some of these cyclones, winds have reached the speed of a Category 1 hurricane, over 120 km/h (75 mph), and in one of them, the winds reached Category 2 strength, over 150 km/h (93 mph). Saffir-Simpson Scale, based on the average one-minute wind speed at 10 meters above the ground level (source: Wikipedia). The Saffir-Simpson scale, developed in 1971 at the National Hurricane Center in the United States, theoretically should be applied only to tropical depressions located in the Atlantic and the northern Pacific. Other systems are used for monsoons, cyclones, and typhoons in other parts of the world. Tropical/Subtropical Depressions in the Mediterranean are typically located almost exclusively west of the island of Crete, but meteorologically, they are identical to hurricanes or cyclones in any part of the globe, typically occurring during the autumn period and rarely during summer. Particularly rare atmospheric conditions are required for the formation of Mediterranean cyclones, with masses of warm and humid air over the sea colliding with cold air currents from the north, creating highly unstable atmospheric conditions that intensify as they move slowly northward with a counterclockwise rotation. Favored by the increase in sea surface temperature due to global warming, the typical Mediterranean cyclone lasts from one to five days, causing high storm surges and very intense rainfall. In contrast, the typical Atlantic hurricane causes much more damage due to its high wind speed. ​ The Cispadana area of Emilia-Romagna seems to deserve the name of "hydrogeological Achilles' heel" for being highly vulnerable to subtropical depressions that penetrate the Adriatic Sea. The diagonal position of the Apennine mountain range provides an ideal location for the persistence of these tropical depressions in this area, creating intense storm surges with a rise in sea level along the Adriatic coast and hindering river drainage. Rotating westward, the Mediterranean depression collides with the northeastern part of the Tuscan-Emilian Apennines, remaining there and pouring down the significant amount of water it contains. ​ During the two tropical depressions that affected Emilia, particularly Romagna, around May 2nd and 16th, 2023, it is estimated that at least 20 to 50 centimeters (8 to 20 inches) of rainfall occurred in 2-3 days. This is typically the amount of rainfall received in six months to an entire year in Aosta. Not surprisingly, floods and landslides occurred in at least 40 communities in the area, with overflow from at least 20 rivers and canals. Interestingly, the foothill areas were more affected by landslides and floods. In the plain region, specifically Bassa Romagna, both rivers and canals swelled, and canal overflow was more prevalent than river overflow. ​ There were many casualties, an incredible number of displaced individuals, and significant economic and ecological damage, which urgently call for awakening the responsible organizations for monitoring, maintenance, and prevention of such disasters. Unfortunately, these disasters are expected to increase in the future due to the profound changes in global atmospheric conditions. Warning communities at risk of landslides and flooding remains an exceptionally important measure, and in this regard, the competent authorities, primarily the Prefects and Mayors, have made maximum efforts. Tropical depressions in the Mediterranean are increasing and unpredictable. Their impact on the Cispadana region of Emilia has repeatedly proven to be catastrophic, confirming that the title of my book published in 2022 represented a stark reality: "Living Underwater in Romagna." ​ It is indeed remarkable that Romagna, which serves as a hub for the distribution of river and surface runoff water, suffers from the opposite effect during the summer months due to water scarcity. In my book, I suggested maximizing the conservation of freshwater and avoiding its loss into the Adriatic Sea. This can be achieved through the use of reservoirs or artificial lakes that can also serve as overflow outlets during Red Alert situations when water levels in rivers and canals threaten to cause flooding. By constructing partial dams or weirs on rivers, it is possible to create intra-fluvial reservoirs from which water can be obtained for irrigation purposes. By building reservoirs adjacent to rivers and canals, expansion areas can be created in many low-lying areas of our region, providing the dual benefits of water conservation and raising the overall ground level. ​ These measures can contribute to mitigating water scarcity during the dry season and help manage excess water during periods of heavy rainfall, thus promoting more sustainable water management practices in the Romagna region. The above diagram illustrates how incomplete dams or weirs (D) distributed along a river can create water storage reservoirs without obstructing the total flow in case the water volume increases, thus reducing the amount of water wasted into the sea. Suitable sluice gates (S) and conduits (C) can be added to retain or drain excess water into dedicated artificial reservoirs or expansion areas (G). Five centuries ago, Leonardo da Vinci brilliantly demonstrated to the people of Romagna how to achieve this with his "weir" or "Leonardian weir" or "Leonardian dam." Few people are aware that there are still two weirs/closures in the Senio River that form two upstream reservoirs. Initially built to supply water to the watermills’ canal, they continue to function as reservoirs for water conservation used for agricultural irrigation. ​ Tebano Weir (Castel Bolognese) on the Senio River. The foreground shows the partial weir or dam (2022). San Severo Weir (Cotignola) sul Senio (2022) Rivers with high embankments, canals, and ditches are constant features of the Romagna landscape, with elevated roads and farmland situated much lower. They represent the result of centuries of extensive land reclamation works in the marshy areas that were typical of the eastern Cispadana region. Unfortunately, this region still remains at significantly lower levels compared to the foothill areas south of the Via Emilia. ​ The Romans taught us that land reclamation work is never complete. Maintenance work, such as dredging canals and rivers, should be ongoing. Unfortunately, the canals are turning into ditches, and our rivers have transformed into wooded areas, with restrictions of their riverbeds and obstacle to the river flow. The forest in the riverbed and floodplains of the Santerno River, south of the bridge on Via Reale (SS 16 - 2019). The maintenance of rivers and canals falls under the jurisdiction of various administrative organizations, each of [which believes] them convinced it is doing its best with the resources available to them. However, they have not been able to achieve the ultimate goal of keeping the low-lying areas of Romagna dry and ensuring water availability in times of need. Swift water disposal and water preservation are two essential needs in Romagna that cannot be delayed. ​ Symptoms of this issue recur regularly every year. The diagnosis has been made, and the treatment is known and attainable. Prophylaxis would be ideal and has already been planned for a long time, yet it often remains stagnant for unknown reasons. In Veneto, expansion basins or reservoirs successfully prevented flooding five years ago when a significant amount of 700 mm of rain fell in just a few hours. In Emilia Romagna, less than 300 mm of rainfall caused extensive damage, complete chaos, and the regrettable loss of 15 lives. ​ It is particularly interesting to note that about 15 years ago, the Regional Administration allocated 190 million euros for the construction of 23 expansion areas (“casse di espansione,” in Italian). However, only 12 are currently operational, none of which are located in Romagna, the most at-risk area with annual flooding. Two expansion basins are under construction on the Senio River. The one in Tebano is not yet connected to the river, and the land for the second one has not yet been appropriately acquired. The Lamone and Santerno expansion basins are still awaiting completion after 15 years of planning. “Il Resto del Carlino” newspaper, September 10, 2019 For those who oppose the concept of expansion areas, it is worth considering that the C.E.R. (Canale Emiliano Romagnolo) derives its water from the Cavo Napoleonico, a large expansion canal between the Po River and the Reno River, artificially created by Napoleon's engineers two centuries ago. Less than a week ago, the C.E.R. was at risk of overflowing. Its course was cleverly reversed using powerful pumps, utilizing the Cavo Napoleonico for its original purpose. ​ While everyone complains about low river water levels and profound climate changes, freshwater continues to flow into the sea, drought remains a constant in the summer, and excessive rainfall continues to flood Romagna. There is still much work to be done to improve territorial resilience and prevent the catastrophes of May 2023. Preventive measures should start without delay in the low-lying areas of Romagna. Regions Copyright © (2023) Osvaldo Contarini All rights reserved

The Vatican City State Area: 121 acres (49 ha.) | Population: 820 The Vatican is the central seat of the Roman Catholic Church, also known as the “Holy See”. Since entering into the treaty of the Lateran Pact in 1929, It is a sovereign and independent state and geographically an enclave within Rome Italy. The Treaty is part of the Italian constitution and provides for the sole authority over the Vatican state by the Holy See. The form of government of the Holy See is considered to be a Monarchy with the head being the Pope, who is the “Bishop of Rome”, and who is elected by the “College of Cardinals”. Coat of Arms Papal Flag The form of government of the Holy See is considered to be a Monarchy with the head being the Pope, who is the “Bishop of Rome”, and who is elected by the “College of Cardinals”. The college of cardinals is comparable to a Senate. There are currently 203 cardinals from 69 countries, all of which are “appointed” by the Pope. The Vatican’s affairs are managed and monitored by the “Roman Catholic Curia”, comparable to a cabinet, which includes Secretariats, Dicasteries, Congregations, Tribunals, Pontifical Councils, Offices, Pontifical commissions,the Labor office of the Apostolic See and the famous Pontifical Swiss Guard, which has provided security to the Vatican and especially the Pope since its establishment in 1506. The Holy See is the center of the Catholic Church which currently has approximately 1.3 billion baptised members throughout the world. The Vicariate for Vatican city lists a total of 15 churches within the limits of the Vatican city. Rome hosts approximately 900 churches, including Basilicas, Parish, Rector, Annex, National, Regional and Eastern Catholic churches. Castell Gandolfo Only a few miles outside of Rome (15 mi/24 km) is the summer residence of the papacy, known as “Castel Gandolfo”. For centuries, popes retreated to that residence mostly during the summer months. Castell Gandolfo The property has been well maintained and while it has been closed to the public since its inception, very recently, the pope ordered the estate to be open to the public St. Peters Square Basilica Vatican Museum Vatican Museum Regions

Lazio Italy Capital: Roma Area: 17,232 km2 | 6,653 mi2 Population: 5,715,190 (2019 est) Provinces: Frosinone | Latina | Rieti | Roma | Frosinone | Viterbo ​ Rivers/Bodies of Water: Alento Amaseno Aniene Arrone Fiora Melfa Mignone Sack Sixtus Tiber Velino Vezza Regions

Who is Who in Italian History Giovanni Giolitti 1842 - 1928 Giovanni Giolitti, a progressive Liberal, was a 5-term premier, i.e. from 1892 to 1893, from 1903 to 1905, from 1906 to 1909, from 1911 to 1914, and from 1920 to 1921. He first entered parliament in 1882 and held the position of Minister of Finance from 1889 to 1990. He was accused of political corruption including controlling elections in Southern Italy and of “reorganizing” coalitions. The expression “Giolittismo” stands for the era from 1900 to 1924 during which Giolitti’s corruption practices were the boldest. He opposed Italian participation in WW 1 but failed and lost his premiership in 1914. He was instrumental in making it possible that the Fascists won 35 seats in the chamber during the 1921 elections thus helping Benito Mussolini gain power. He remained silent to the increasing Fascist brutality until after November 1924, at what time he opposed Mussolini openly. ​ Giolitti’s Career Chronology ​ 1842 Giovanni Giolitti is born in Mondovi (Piemonte) on October 27 to his father Giovenale Giolitti, an officer of the court and mother Enrichetta Plochiù; ​1861 Giolitti graduates from the law school at the university of Turin; 1869 After a short tenure at the royal court in Turin he transfers to the Italian Government and is appointed to Secretary of State; 1872 Giolitti is appointed to the position of Secretary General of the Ministry of Finance and moves to Rome; 1882 Prime Minister Agostino Depretis (1813-1887) appoints Giolitti to Privy Council. He is also a Liberal member of the Italian Parliament; 1885 Giolitti openly opposes Prime Minister Depretis and leads the opposition with respect to financial policies; 1889 Giolitti is nominated Minister of Finance (Treasury Secretary) by Prime Minister Crispi; 1890 Giolitti steps down as Minister and becomes the lead opponent to Italy’s financial policies representing the leftist liberal party; 1892 Giolitti is nominated Prime Minister; 1893 Following accusations of foul play and involvement in a substantial bank scandal, Giolitti steps down as Prime Minister; 1901-1903 King Vittorio Emanuele III nominates Giolitti Minister of Interior under Prime Minister Zanardelli. Given his vast experience in government affairs he is viewed as the actual head of state and succeeds in molding most of the government policies; 1903-1905 As Prime Minister he attempts to integrate the Italian workers and labor movement with the liberal Monarchy. He believes that succeeding in this unification would promote Italy’s industrialization; 1906-1909 Now a Prime Minister for the 3d time, Giolitti moves Italy away from the Tri-State treaty Italy enjoyed with the Austria-Hungarian and the German Monarchies over issues of power over the Balkan states; 1911 Giolitti is nominated Prime Minister for the 4th time. His attempt to facilitate the participation of the Socialist Party in the Italian government fails due to opposition of the party’s revolutionary wing; 1912 Introduction of General Elections and government controlled Social (Security) Insurance; 1914 Following parliamentary elections in February that led to increased power by Conservatives and the Socialists, Giolitti steps down as Prime Minister. By August, the debate about Italy’s participation in WW1 leads to a strongly divided Italy. The Nationalists and radical Republicans favor Italy’s participation while the parliamentary majority led by Giolitti favor neutrality; 1915 Giolitti becomes Leader of the Opposition in May and hopes that his party’s parliamentary majority will help bring the Salandra government down. During mass demonstrations, the poet Gabriele D’Annunzio agitates the crowd to kill Giolitti. Giolitti’s departure from Rome finally leads to the break-up of the opposition by the Neutralist party; 1915-1918 Italy participates in WW1 under the Entente. However at the conclusion of the war, Italy is not awarded the Balkan territories it requested; 1920 In the wake of post war’s political and economic crisis, Giolitti is again nominated Prime Minister. He signs an accord with Yugoslavia and ends the occupation of the city Fiume (today known as Rijeka) by force; 1921- 1922 Giolitti steers Italy on an integration course to include the first-time elected Fascists. As he fails in this attempt, he steps down as Prime Minister and limits himself to the Opposition; (He is followed by Luigi Facta in 1922) 1926 Giolitti openly opposes Benito Mussolini’s government; 1928 In what was to be his last major speech to the parliament, 85-years old, Giolitti calls for opposition to Mussolini’s proposed election reform which in his words was equal to the dissolution of the constitution. Giovanni Giolitti dies on July 17 in Cavour, Piedmont. Sources: Microsoft Encarta, The Columbia encyclopedia. Sixth edition; “Die Bibliographie von Giovanni Giolitti”. Who is Who

History of Naples The Greco-Roman Era ​ 9th Century BC Settlers from the Greek island of Rhodes establish the first settlement on the small island of “Megaride” off the coast of today’s Naples. With the support from the Greek colonies of nearby Cuma, the settlers establish a settlement and name it after “Parthenope” (in the Greek mythology Parthenope is one of the three Sirens who threw herself into the sea and drowned because her love for Ulysses was not returned; her body was washed ashore at Naples, which was called Parthenope after her name). 600 BC The city of Neapolis (Greek for “new city”) is formed . The original settlement is subsequently named Palepolis (old city). 328 BC Rome defeats Naples in a war. However a treaty allows Naples to continue as an independent city. 90-89 BC Rome grants the citizens of the Campania region roman citizenship. 79 AD Mount Vesuvius erupts and destroys Pompeii, Ercolano and Stabia. 476 Romulus Augustus, the last Western emperor is deposed and incarcerated in the Castrum Lucullianum (today known as Castel dell’Ovo), a castle/fortress on the small isle of Megaride. ​ The Duchies of Naples ​ 536 Belisarius, sent by the Eastern Emperor Justinian, conquers Naples and establishes a Byzantine Duchy.​ 600 Under Byzantine domination, Naples rebuffs several attacks from the uncivilized Longobards. Naples becomes an independent Duchy. Stephen II is appointed to Duke of Naples by Constans II, he later switches his allegiance to the pope and is subsequently nominated Bishop.​ 902 After numerous attacks, the Napolitans defeat Saracen forces at the Garigliano river. ​ The Norman and Swabian Naples ​ 1139 The Neapolitans hand their city to Roger II, King of Palermo who becomes the first monarch of the kingdom of Naples. 1165 William I, son of Roger II of Sicily, commissions the construction of the first castle in Naples: Castel Capuano. ​​1194 Power over the city is handed to Henry IV of Swabia (Bavaria), Son in Law of Roger the Norman. ​1224 Frederick II Hohenstaufen, King of Sicily and Head of the Roman Empire commissions the first university: Università degli Studi. ​ The Angevin Dynasty ​ 1266 Charles of Anjou, son of Louis VIII of France, conquers the city. He becomes King under the name Charles I.​ 1279 Charles of Anjou I commissions his architects Pierre de Chaulnes and Pierre d’Angicourt, to build the magnificent castle Maschio Angioino.​ 1309 Robert of Anjou is proclaimed King of Naples. He was the third (living) son of King Charles II of Naples.​ 1438 René of Anjou becomes King of Naples (René I of Naples). ​ The Aragonese Period ​ ​ 1443 Alfonso of Aragon, son of Ferdinand I of Aragon, enters the city. The Aragonese control also marked the beginning of a humanistic era and Southern culture. ​1458 The reign passes from Alfonso of Aragon to Ferdinand I who is only 35 years old. His kingdom is challenged repeatedly by the Angevins. ​1485 Ferdinand I crushes a revolt of the Barons. ​ The Spanish Vice-Regency ​ 1503 Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, an emissary of the Spanish Throne, also known as “The Great Captain”, arrives in Naples to command the Spanish part of a French/Spanish coalition formed between Ferdinand of Spain and Louis XII of France. ​1631 A violent eruption of mount Vesuvius threatens the population of Naples. In appreciation for having spared the city and its people, the citizens erect a monumental obelisk and dedicate it to the city’s patron San Gennaro. ​1647 Tommaso Aniello (abbreviated also called Masaniello) instigates and leads a revolt of the “malcontenti” (discontent i.e. unhappy people) against the Kingdom. ​1656 A severe epidemic of Pest breaks out in the city and eradicates one third of the population. ​ ​ 1688 A devastating earthquake cause vast destruction of landmarks and buildings. ​ The Austrian Vice-Regency ​ 1707 Beginning of the short Austrian Vice Regency. ​ The Bourbon Era ​ ​ 1734 Carlos IV of Bourbon defeats the Austrians and ascends to King of Naples and Sicilies. 1759 Carlos IV of Bourbon ascends to the Spanish Throne as Charles III of Spain and passes the throne of Naples to his eight years old son Ferdinand IV under the regency of Bernardo Tanucci. 1799 A group of patriots and intellectuals proclaim the Parthenope Republic (Repubblica Partenopea). King Ferdinand IV flees the City to avoid captivity by the French. The Republic only lasts six month and Ferdinand IV regains his throne. ​ The French Decade ​ 1806 Napoleon Bonaparte appoints his brother Giuseppe to King of Naples. ​1808 Joachim Murat, brother-in-law of Napoleon Bonaparte through marriage to Caroline Bonaparte, succeeds Giuseppe Bonaparte as King of Naples. ​ The Reinstatement of the Bourbons ​ 1815 After the fall of Napoleon, Joachim Murat first joins Napoleon in Corsican exile and later attempts regaining Naples through an insurrection in Calabria. Ferdinand IV re-gains the throne of Naples, defeats the insurrection and orders Murat’s execution. ​​1859 Following Ferdinand’s death, his only son Francis II is proclaimed Kind of the two Sicilies. He is to be the last of the Bourbons of Naples. ​ Naples After Italian Unification ​​ 1860 Garibaldi seizes the opportunity of a Kingdom weakened by internal uprisings, and assembles a group of thousand volunteers (“I Mille”) known as the Redshirts. He takes control of the city and later of the remaining region. He declares himself dictator of Sicily under Victor Emmanuel II. ​​1884 The city suffers a severe cholera epidemic​ 1885 After overcoming the epidemic, entire city blocks are demolished under a program called “Risanimento”, a name given to the large scale re-planning and re-building of cities following Italy’s Unification. Examples are the Corso Umberto and the Galleria Umberto I. ​ Contemporary Naples ​ ​​ 1943 After a four-day rebellion (le Quattro Giornate di Napoli), Napolitans push the Germans out of the city and open the way to the Allied Forces. ​​1944 Last eruption of Mount Vesuvius ​​1945 The master piece Napoli Milionaria, marks the beginning of a long list of successful Works by Eduardo De Filippo, an actor, playwright, author and poet, who was appointed Life Senator of the Italian Republic (1981). ​​1952 Commendatore Achille Lauro, the Italian Onassis and shipping magnate becomes Mayor of Naples. He was re-elected in 1956 and 1960. He was one of the most vocal defenders of the monarchy until the mid seventies, even though Italians by referendum in 1946, decided to send the monarchy into exile and become a Republic. ​​1980 A strong earthquake with the epicenter in Irpinia, devastates large parts of Naples. ​​1994 Naples hosts the G7 and gains prestige on the word stage. ​​​2007 Wars between crime syndicates, an unresolved waste disposal crisis, and the uncontrollable petty crime surgeance reflect on Naples with a negative image among Italians and the World. Italy's History