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Who is Who in Italian History Dante Alighieri 1265 - 1321 ​Dante Alighieri ​was born in 1265 in Florence, Italy to Bella and Alighiero Bellincione. His mother died when he was only 7 years old, and soon thereafter, his father remarries with Lapa di Chiarissimo Cialuffi, who would give birth to Dante’s half-brother Francesco and half-sister Gaetana. At the age of 9, he meets and falls in love with Beatrice Portinari, the 8-year old daughter of Florentine nobleman Folco Portinari. It is said that his (platonic) love for Beatrice inspired many of his famous works throughout his life. He started writing and exchanging poems with notable poets in his early youth and at the age of 10, he enrolled in the convent schools of Santa Croce and Santa Maria Novella, both located in Florence with a focus on grammar and philosophy. He later studied in Todi (province of Perugia, Umbria region), followed by studies at the University of Bologna, Europe’s oldest and arguably the world’s most famous university. ​ At the age of 12, he got engaged to Gemma, the Florence-born daughter of Maria and Manetto Donati, who he would marry around 1285 (at the age of 20). ​ History is unclear as to whether they had a happy marriage, however, they had three children, i.e. Pietro, Jacopo and Antonia, who would later become sister Beatrice, a nun at the monastery of Santo Stefano. ​ Like many of his peers, Dante Alighieri was very involved in politics and as expected from the young citizens at the time, he joint the citizen’s militia. Who is Who

The Arcaini Italy Web This "All About Italy" website has been a passion project fo r me for nearly two decades. It has evolved into an outstanding resource for those seeking to gain valuable insights into Italy's rich history. The site's content is meti culously researched, drawing on a range of sources, including literature, references, published articles, and online image libraries. All sources are appropriately cited under "Source" and "Credits." ​ I have embarked on writing a series of twenty books each dedicated to one of the twenty Italian regions. The first of these books focuses on Tuscany. ​ If you have any feedback or suggestions for improving the content, please feel free to email me. Additionally, you can click on any image on any page to zoom in and enlarge it. Italy Facts and Figures Information about the Name "Italy", Italy's Area, Italy's Population, Italian Languages, Italy's Capital, Italy's Regions, and Italy's Major Cities, Italy's GDP and Economy, Italy's Religions, Education in Italy, Health in Italy, Italy's Government, Italy's Political Parties, Italy's Voting Qualifications, Italy's Armed Services, Italy's Transportation, Italy's Illegal Immigration Map of Modern Italy Map of Modern Italy with the Location of all Regions Italian Holidays Italian Holidays 2022 - 2024, Names of Italian Holidays with English Translation Italian Anthem (Includes Sound) Information about the Origin of the Italian Anthem Fratelli d'Italia, Brothers of Italy, full Italian Anthem in Italian with English Translation, Michele Novaro, Composer and Goffredo Mameli the writer, Italian Anthem soundtrack Italian Coat of Arms Information about Italy's Coat of Arms, Italian Constitution States Italian Flag Information about Italian Flag, Italian Tricolore, Lombard Standar, Emplems of Liberty, Transpadane Republic, Cispadane Republic, Cisalpine Republic Italy’s Major Islands Information about Italy's Major Islands Sicily, Sicilia, Sardegna, Sardinia History of Italy Information about Origin of the Name Italy, History of the Italian Language, History of Italy Summarized, People of Italy, Early Italy, Italy's Bronze Age, History of Rome, Roman Empire, Roman Emperors, Italy's Middle Ages, Lombards, Franks, Ottonians, Italy's Holy Roman Empire, European Dynasties, Rise of Italian City States, Kingdom of Sicily, History of Naples, Italian Renaissance and Italy'sForeign Domination, Napoleonic Era in Italy, Risorgimento, Italy's Unification, Kingdom of Italy, Italy's Fascist Period, Italy's World War II, Postwar Italy Italian Regions Italy's Regions, Abruzzo, Basilicata, Calabria, Campania, Emilia Romagna, Friuli Venezia Giulia, Venice, Lazio, Liguria, Lombardia, Lombardy, Marche, Molise, Piemonte, Piedmont, Puglia, Sardehna, Sardinia, Sicily, Sicilia, Tuscany, Toscana, Trentino Alto Adige, Umbria, Valle D'Aosta, Veneto Special Places: Cinque Terre , Rome, Vaticano Vatican, San Marino Who is Who in Italian History Information about Famous People who have Influenced Italy's History, Carlo Cafiero, Camillo Benso, Conte (Count) di Cavour, Vittorio Emanuele Orlando, Nicola Fabrizi, Luigi Facta, Giovanni Giolitti, Benito Mussolini, Dante Alighieri, Italian Prime Ministers 1945-2022, Italian Presidents 1946-2022

Fascist Period ​​Fascist Period Italy was plunged into deep social and political crisis by the war. Veterans, unemployed workers, desperate peasants, and a frightened middle class demanded changes, and the 1919 elections suddenly made the Socialist and the new Popular (Catholic) parties the largest in parliament. While extreme nationalists agitated for territorial expansion, strikes and threats of revolution unsettled the nation Benito Mussolini In 1919, in the midst of these unsettled conditions, Benito Mussolini, also known as “il Duce” a former revolutionary socialist, founded a new movement called “Fascismo”. Through a combination of shrewd political maneuvering and widespread violence perpetrated by Mussolini’s Black Shirt squads, the Fascists gained increasing support. In October 1922, after the Fascists had marched on Rome, King Victor Emmanuel III named Mussolini prime minister, a mistake he would soon come to regret. Within four years, Mussolini had become a dictator, destroying civil liberties, outlawing all other political parties, and imposing a totalitarian regime on the country by means of terror and constitutional subversion. Public works projects, propaganda, militarism, and the appearance of order gained Mussolini considerable prestige, and the Lateran Treaty with the papacy in 1929 gave the “duce” (as he was called) a wide measure of popularity. Fascist Expansionism During the 1930s, Mussolini’s foreign policy, based on aggression and expansion, moved Italy closer to war. In 1935-36 the Italian army invaded and conquered Ethiopia, and in 1936, Italy sent troops to support Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War. Later that year Mussolini and Adolf Hitler, the National Socialist dictator of Germany, established the Rome-Berlin Axis. In 1939, Italy took Albania, and the two dictators then concluded a military alliance known as the Pact of Steel. In June 1940, nine months after the outbreak of World War II in Europe, Italy entered the conflict on Germany’s side. Death of Mussolini and his Mistress Claretta Petacci Towards the end of World War II, the Italian people had grown to passionately hate the previously revered “Duce”, mainly fueled by the unjustified execution of dicidents, who in most cases disappeared without trace. ​ Mussolini himself, along with his mistress Claretta (Clara) Petacci, were executed by partisans on April 28, 1945 while attempting to flee Italy. Their bodies were taken to the Piazzale Loreto in Milan, a symbolic place where countless partisans were executed previously. Their corpses were beaten, urinated on and hung upside down in the midst of a large crowds cheering the demise of the Duce. The People wanted to make sure the hated dictator of over 20 years was indeed no longer. In the late 80s, I met J. Duane Cann, a member of the US Air Force who was stationed in Italy during WWII. He was on special orders to assess the bomb damage in Northern Italy and was sent by US command to witness and confirm Mussolini’s death. ​ I have the original pictures Duane took and attached to his note, but I decided that they are too graphic to publish here. Should you be interested in copies of the pictures for research purposes, feel free to send me a request by email . Italy's History

Kingdom Of Italy The new nation faced many serious problems. A large debt, few natural resources, and almost no industry or transportation facilities combined with extreme poverty, a high illiteracy rate, and an uneven tax structure weighed heavily on the Italian people. ​ ​ Regionalism was still strong, and only a fraction of the citizens had the right to vote. To make matters worse, the pope, angered over the loss of Rome and the papal lands, refused to recognize the Italian state. In the countryside, banditry and peasant anarchism resulted in often brutal government repression. Meanwhile, during the 1880s, a socialist movement began to develop among workers in the cities. ​ The profound differences between the impoverished south and the wealthier north widened. Parliament did little to resolve these problems: throughout this so-called Liberal Period (1870-1915), the nation was governed by a series of coalitions of liberals to the left and right of center who were unable to form a clear majority. The most notable leaders of the period were Francesco Crispi and Giovanni Giolitti. Francesco Crispi Giovanni Giolitti Despite modest economic and social progress prior to World War I, Italy was a dissatisfied and crisis-ridden nation. In an attempt to increase its international influence and prestige, in 1882 Italy joined Germany and Austria in the so called "Triple Alliance". During the 1890s, Italy unsuccessfully tried to conquer Ethiopia, and in 1911, Italy declared war on Turkey with the objective of obtaining the North African territory of Libya. After the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Italy remained neutral for almost a year while the government negotiated with both sides. In 1915, Italy finally joined the Allies, after having been promised territories that it regarded as “Italia irredenta” (un-liberated Italy). The country was unprepared for a major war, however; aside from a few victories in 1918, Italy suffered serious losses of men, material, and morale.​ Vittorio Emanuele Orlando Moreover, despite the efforts of Vittorio Emmanuele Orlando at the Paris Peace Conference, the treaties that followed the war gave Italy only Trentino and Trieste, a small part of the territories it had expected. These disappointments produced a powerful wave of nationalist sentiment against the Allies and the Italian government. Italy's History

Who is Who in Italian History This Site was inspired by the many requests for information. ​I will add prominent people as time allows Carlo Cafiero Camillo Benso, Conte di Cavour Vittorio Emanuele Orlando Nicola Fabrizi Luigi Facta Giovanni Giolitti Benito Mussolini Dante Alighieri Italian Prime Ministers Italian Presidents Home

Republic of San Marino Area: 24 sq mi (61 km2) – Population: 34,0170 (est. 2021) Italy Coat of Arms San Marino Flag San Marino, which capital has the same name, is located app. 80 mi (129 km) south east of Bologna and 146 mi ( 236 km) due east of Florence. It is a microstate embedded within Italy and is an independent republic which is governed by a unicameral “Grand and General Council” of 60 members, who elects a Congress of State, a council of 10 elected by and among the members of the Grand and General Council, and 2 captains regents, who are elected by the Grand and General Council for a term of 6 months. The elections take place on April 1 and October 1 of each year, a tradition that dates back to the 13th century. San Marino gained independence from the Roman empire in ca. 300 and established its constitution around 1600. The main political parties are the Repubblica Futura (Future Republic), Civica 10 (Civic 10), the Partito Democratico Cristiano (Christian Democratic Party). San Marino is considered to be a tax haven and its principal economy is driven by banking, agriculture products, wine and collectible stamps. The per-capita GDP puts San Marino 20th in the world with over $59,000 per person (2020 est.) *1) . The Vistas and Landscaping are breathtaking and visiting SanMarino is a unique experience setting you back to the 15th century. San Marino Map San Marino City Ara dei Volontari San Marino Castle Regions

Lombards The LOMBARDS arrived in Italy in 568, after the Ostrogoths -another Germanic power-. Their control soon spread from the north to Tuscany and Umbria, although much of southern and eastern Italy remained in Byzantine hands. Their control soon spread from the north to Tuscany and Umbria, although much of southern and eastern Italy remained in Byzantine hands. By the end of the 7th century, papal resistance had induced the Lombards to consolidate their power in central and northern Italy, where they achieved political unification. Meanwhile, the unrest in the Byzantine centers in the south reflected the disturbances taking place in Byzantium itself, and popular revolts broke out in Rome, Naples, Venice, and in other regions. ​ However, by 728, the Lombards, under Liutprand (r.712-44), extended their influence in spite of strong papal attempts at intervention. During Liutprand’s reign, many of the Lombards converted from ARIANISM to Roman Catholicism. At this time they were accepting many other elements of Roman culture, including the Latin language. Their laws and administration reflected both Roman and Germanic influences. Source : Image – commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Italiabizantino-lombarda-pt.svg Italy's History

History of Rome There is no consensus about the actual origin of the name "Rome" among historians. There are several versions of the origin of the name and the founding of the city. One that emanated from the Greek mythology of Aeneas and one that reconciled the Greek version with the Italian accounting of the twin brothers Romulus and Remus. According to Roman historians, the city of ROME was founded by the twin brothers Romulus and Remus on April 21, 753 BC. Rome was located on the Tiber River about 15 miles inland from the Mediterranean Sea. The Romans had easy access to the sea, and were somewhat protected from seaborne invasion. Also, Rome lay in the middle of the Italian peninsula, the boot-shaped landmass to the west of Greece. ​ After the expulsion of the last of these kings, the power of the Etruscans declined as the Romans began the unification of Italy. ​ ​This process reached its final stage when the right of Roman citizenship was extended throughout Italy in 89 BC, and with the subsequent diffusion of Roman institutions and culture from the Alps to Sicily, and Latin as the general language. ​ ​ The myth goes that lupa, a she-wolf nursed and sheltered the twin-brothers Romulus and Remus after they were abandoned in the wild by order of King Amulius of Alba Longa. She cared for the infants at her den, a cave known as the Lupercal, until they were discovered by a shepherd, Faustulus.The twin brothers Romulus and Remus were purported to be sons of Rhea Silvia and fathered by either Mars, the god of war, or the demigod hero Hercules. Romulus and Remus They were abandoned at birth, in the manner of many mythological heroes, because of a prophecy that they would overthrow their great-uncle Amulius, who had overthrown Silvia's father Numitor. Contrary to their orders, the twins were abandoned on the river Tiber by servants who took pity on the infants. The twins were nurtured by a she-wolf until a shepherd named Faustulus found the boys and took them in as his sons. Faustulus and his wife Acca Larentia raised the children. When Remus and Romulus became adults, they killed Amulius and restored Numitor. They decided to establish a city. Each of them took auspices, then quarrelled over the result. Romulus and his followers began to establish city walls on his favoured hill, the Palatine. Remus wanted to found the city on the Aventine Hill. In the commonest version, according to Livy, Remus slighted Romulus' wall by leaping over it, and was killed, either by his twin or his twin's followers. In the following Romulus name the city after himself. Thus, Rome began with divisions and a fratricide, a story that was later taken to represent the city's history of internecine political strife and bloodshed. Italy's History

Early Italy Excavations throughout Italy and Sicily have surfaced evidence of human activity dating back to the Paleolithic period (also called “Old Stone Age”. The Paleolithic period is referring to the period between 200,000 and 2.5Million years ago). It is also referred to the Mesolithic period (also called the “Middle Stone Age”).The word Mesolithic usually refers specifically to a development in northwestern Europe that began about 8000 BC, and lasted until about 2700 BC. ​ By the beginning of the Neolithic period, (the period following the Mesolithic period, during which men became herdsmen and cultivators, and modifiers of their environment, and the social structure became more complex), the small communities of hunters of earlier times had been replaced by agricultural settlements, with some stock breeding and widespread use of stone implements and pottery. Painted vessels that seem to have been influenced by contemporary styles originating in Greece, have been found at Castellaro Vecchio on the island of Lipari. Image Reference: https://www.invaluable.com/auction-lot/ancient-greek-painted-terra-cotta-vessel-7104-c-a1d4dba8ed Credits: L. Bernabò Brea, M. Cavalier – Meligunìs Lipàra VIII – Parte I Salina. Ricerche archeologiche (1989-1993), con appendici di J.L. Williams e S. Levi, M.C. Martinelli. pp. 1-190; Parte II di A. Pagliara, Fonti per la storia dell’arcipelago Eoliano in età greca, pp.1-129. Palermo 1995. Italy's History

Italy Facts and Figures The Republic of Italy Name : Italy/Italia | Italian Republic/Repubblica Italiana AREA : 116,348 square miles – 301,000 sq. km (world comparison: 73) 97.6% land, 2.4% water Land use: agriculture - 47.1% (2018 est) forest - 31.4% (2018 est) Other - 21.5% (2018 est) Border line 1,148 mi (1,836 km) -Austria (253 mi/404 km), France (298 mi/476 km), Vatican (2.1 mi/3.4 km), San Marino (23 mi/37 km), Slovenia (136 mi/218 km), Switzerland (436 mi/698 km) POPULATION : (Jan-2022 est.) : 61.1 million World rank: 23 Birth rate: 6.95/1,000 Death rate: 11.3/1,000 Ages 13.5% less than 15 yrs. old 64.5% ages 15 – 65 22% over 65 Life expectancy (at birth) male: 80.3 yrs​ female: 85.1 yrs Total: 82.6 yrs 72% Urban, 29% Rural (2022 est) Rome: 4.3 mil, Milan: 3.2 mil, Naples: 2.2 mil, Turin: 0.9 mil, Palermo: 0.9 mil​ 488 People/sq mile (189/ sq. Km) Ethnic Groups Italian, small minorities German, French, Slovene, Albanian and Greek LANGUAGES : I talian (small sections speak German or Slovene) CAPITAL, REGIONS AND MAJOR CITIES (2019 est.) Rome – 2.9 million (Capital) Milan – 3.1 million Naples – 2.2 million Turin – 1.8 million 15 regions Abruzzo, Basilicata, Calabria, Campania, Emilia-Romagna, Lazio (Latium), Liguria, Lombardia, Marche, Molise, Piemonte (Piedmont), Puglia (Apulia), Toscana (Tuscany), Umbria, Veneto​ 5 autonomous regions ​Friuli Venezia Giulia, Sardegna (Sardinia), Sicilia (Sicily), Trentino-Alto Adige (Trentino-South Tyrol) or Trentino-Suedtirol (German), Valle d'Aosta (Aosta Valley)​ ECONOMY / GDP : $2.3 trill (GDP/ capita; Agriculture-9%; Industry & Commerce-32%; Services Exports $496 B Partners Germany 12.5% France 10.3% US 9% Spain 5.2% UK 5.2% Switzerland 4.6% Imports $ 433 B Partners Germany 16.3% France 8.8% China 7.1% Netherlands 5.6% Spain 5.3% Belgium 4.5% Tourism $ 24 B National Budget Revenues – $903 B Expenditures – $948 B RELIGION Christian – 80.8% (mostly Roman Catholic) Muslim – 4.9% Unaffiliated – 13.4% ​Other – 0.9% EDUCATION Education expenditure: 4.3% of GDP Literacy (2020 est.) ​Education is free and compulsory for ages 6-13 99.2% of adult population is literate 90 Universities (2017 est.) ​ ​HEALTH Hospital Beds – 3.12 per 1,000 population Physicians – 4 per 1,000 population (2020 est.) Infant Mortality – 2.43 per 1,000 population GOVERNMENT Parlamentary Republic Capital: Rome (standard time: 6 hours ahead of New York) Cabinet President (Chief of State) : Sergio Mattarella (independent) – born 7/23/1941, elected on January 31, 2015, succeeding President Giorgio Napolitano, who resigned on 1/14/2015. The President is elected for a 7-year term by an electoral college consisting of both houses of Parliament and 58 regional representatives. President Mattarella was re-elected on January 29, 2022 Cabinet Prime Minister (Head of Government) : Giorgia Meloni , born 15 January 1977, has been serving as the prime minister of Italy since 22 October 2022, the first woman to hold this position. A member of the Chamber of Deputies since 2006, she has led the Brothers of Italy (FdI) political party since 2014, and she has been the president of the European Conservatives and Reformists Party since 2020. Governing Coalition (2022) Giorgia Meloni FdI Matteo Salvini LN Silvio Berlusconi FI Matteo Salvini and Silvio Berlusconi are Deputy Prime Ministers, each with the official title of Vice President of the Council of Ministers. Cabinet Referred to as Council of Ministers, nominated by the Prime Minister and approved by the President. ​ Legislature Bicameral Legislature or “Parlamento” consists of the Senate or “Senato” holding 326 seats, 315 elected by popular vote of which 232 are directly elected and 83 are elected by regional proportional representation, and 11 senators are appointed for-life. Members serve five-year terms. ​ Chamber of Deputies or “Camera dei Deputati” holding 630 seats, 475 members are elected directly and 155 are elected by regional proportional representation. Members serve five-year terms Political Division ​20 regions with, some autonomy, divided into 95 provinces. ​ Political Parties (2022 elections 9/25/2022, next on 9/30/2027) Governing Coalition (Center Right) : Brothers of Italy (FdI 65 seats) - Giorgia Meloni, Council Chair/Prime Minister), Northern League (Lega Nord 30 seats or Lega) - Matteo SALVINI, Forza Italia (FI 18 seats) - Silvio Berlusconi. Center - Left-Coalition: Democratic Party (PD 40 seats) - Valentina Cuppi Alleanza Verdi e Sinistra (AVS 3 seats) - Angelo Bonelli/Nicola Fratoianni Muovimento 5 Stelle (M5S 28 seats) - Beppe Grillo Italia Viva (IV 9 seats) - Matteo Renzi Südtiroler Volkspartei (South Tyrolean People’s Party / SVP 2 seats) - Philipp Achammer Sud chiama Nord (South calls North/SCN 1 seat) - Cateno De Luca Other Parties and Parliamentary Groups: Action (Azione/A o Az) - Carlo Calenda Article One (Articolo Uno/Art.1 ) - Roberto Speranza Associative Movement of Italians Abroad (Movimento Associativo Italiani all'Estero, MAIE ) - Ricardo Antonio Merlo August 24th Movement (Movimento 24 Agosto/M24A) - Pino Aprile Base Camp (Campobase) - Micheal Rech Centrists for Europe (Centristi per l'Europa/CpE) - Pier Ferdinanco Casini Courage Italy (Coraggio Italia/CI) - Luigi Brugnaro Democratic Center (Centro Democratico/CD) - Bruno Tabacci Fassa Association (Associazione Fassa/Fassa) - Francesco Pitscheider Free and Equal (Liberi e Uguali/LeU) - Pietro Grasso Green Europe (Europa Verde/EV) - Marco Boato/Fiorella Zabatta Italian Left (Sinistra Italiana/SI) - Maria Gabriella Branca Italy in the Center (Italia al Centro/IaC) - Giovanni Toti It is Alive (èViva) - Francesco Laforgia More Europe (+EU/Piu Europa) - Emma Bonino New Italian Socialist Party (Nuovo Partito Socialista Italiano/NPSI) - Stefano Caldoro Popular Civic List (Civica Populare/CP) - Beatrice Lorenzin Possible (Possibile/Pos) - Beatrice Brignone Progressive Party (Partito Progressista) - Massimo Zedda Solidary Democracy (Democrazia Solidale/Demo S) - Mario Giro Trentino Tyrolean Autonomist Party (Partito Autonomista Trentino Tirolese/PATT) - Franco Panizza Union of the Center (Unione di Centro/UdC) - Antonio de Poli Us with Italy (Noi con L'Italia/NcI) - Maurizio Lupi Valdostan Union (Union valdôtaine/UV) - Christina Machet Will Become very Beautiful (Diventerà Bellissima) - Nello Musumeci Political Influencers The Roman Catholic Church; Workers Union (Confederazione Generale Italiana del Lavoro/CGIL) , left wing, Italian Confederation of Workers' Trade Unions (Confederazione Italiana dei Sindacati Lavoratori or CISL) , Catholic centrist (Centristi Cattolici) Italian Labor Union (Unione Italiana del Lavoro/UIL) , Italian manufacturers and merchants associations (Confederazione Industria, Confederazione Commercio) ; Organized farm groups (Confederazione Coltivatori, Confederazione Agricoltura) Voting Qualification Universal voting rights for all citizens age 18 and older ​ Judicial Branch/Highest Court Constitutional Court Supreme Court of Cassation or Corte Costituzionale, composed of 15 judges One-third appointed by the president One-third elected by Parliament One-third elected by the ordinary and administrative supreme courts Armed Services​ (2021 est) Mandatory 12-month service by men ages 18 -25 Budget: $32 B (1.5% of GDP) Army – 97,000​ Navy – 29,500 Air Force – 40,500 Paramilitary – 174,000 (Carabinieri, Guardia di Finanza) Reserve: 18,300 Transportation​ Air (2017 est.) : Airports – 134 Paved – 98 Unpaved – 31 Heliports – 5 Registered Air Carriers Scheduled airlines - 3 (Air Dolomiti, ITA Airways, Neos) Charter airlines - 39 (Aer Sicilia, Aeroitalia, AF Air, Air Corporate, Air Four, Air Panarea, Air Service Center, Air Walser, Airaia, Airgreen, Alba Servizi Aerotrasporti, Alidaunia, Alieurope, Aliparma, Aliven, Avionord, Avioriprese, Benair, Compagnia Generale Ripreseaeree, Eas Aeroservizi, Elicar, Elilario Italia, Elitaliana, Elitellina, Elilombarda, Elimediterranea, Eliossola, Elifriulia, Eurofly Service, Fly Jet, Icaro Aero Taxi, Jetcom, Jet-Ops Europe, PeopleFly, Professione Volare, Sardinian Sky Service, Sirio, Sirio Executive, Star Work Sky) Cargo Airlines - 4 (AirCargo Airlines, Cargolux Italia, Poste Air Cargo, Sw Italia) Annual passengers on registered aircraft – 26 million Annual freight on registered aircraft – 945 million metric ton kilometers Air Traffic through busiest Italian airports (2020 data reflecting a 60% decrease impact due to pandemic) ​​ Rome - 9.7 mil Milan (MXP) - 7.2 mil Bergamo - 3.8 mil ​ Catania - 3.6 mil Venice - 2.7 mil Rail (2014 est.) : 12,541 mi (20,182 km) tracks Standard Gauge – 11,663 mi (18,770 km) Narrow gauge – 76 mi (122 km) Roadways (2007 est.) : 303,000 mi (487,700 km) Waterways (2012 est.) : 1,490 mi (2,400 km) Merchant Marine (2019 est.) : 1,353 Bulk carrier – 48 Container ships – 9 General cargo – 116 Oil tankers – 120 Other – 1,060 Ports and Terminals (2017 est.) : Major seaports Augusta (East coast of Sicily) Cagliari (Sardegna) Genova (province of Liguria) Livorno (South West of Pisa) Taranto (Southern Italy – bay inside the “boot”) Trieste (close to Venice, bordering Croatia) Venice Oil Terminal Melilli (East coast of Sicily) Sarroch (near Cagliari, Sardinia) Container Ports (in twenty-foot equivalent unit, also referred to as TEU or teu) Genova – 2.6 million Gioia Tauro 2.5 million (province of Reggio Calabria) LNG Terminals (Liquefied Natural Gas) La Spezia (North East of Florence) Panigaglia (South of La Spezia) Porto Levante (South of Venice) Refugees and Illegal Immigration Given its geographic location and long coastlines, especially to the South facing North Africa, Italy has historically been a favored destination for refugees, embarking often on unsafe small vessels attempting to make their journey from or via North Africa to the Southern coast of Italy. Many attempts result in fatalities. Between 2015 and 2018, an estimated 504,000 refugees and migrants landed at the Southern Italian coast, predominantly originating from Nigeria, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Mali, Somalia, Gambia, Ukraine, Senegal, Cote d’Ivoire, and Eritrea. References: CIA World Facts, www.governo.it Home

Risorgimento The repressive and reactionary policies imposed on Italy by the Austrian leader Klemens, Fürst von Metternich, and the Congress of Vienna aggravated popular discontent, and the expansion of Austrian control in Italy stimulated intense anti-foreign sentiment. ​ A series of unsuccessful revolts led in the 1820s by the Carbonari, a conspiratorial nationalist organization, and in the 1830s by Mazzini’s Young Italy group, provided the background for the Revolution of 1848, which developed in every major Italian city and throughout Europe. These conditions gave rise to the Italian unification movement known as the Risorgimento. Revolutionaries and patriots, especially Giuseppe Mazzini, began to work actively for unity and independence. Italy's History

Italian Unification (detailed version) 1672-1803 Muratori, Alfieri and Genovesi ignite the fire of revolution. 1796 Milan is occupied by the French under French General Napoleon Bonaparte who founds the Cispadane Republic (including Modena, Bologna, and Ferrara). 1797 Pope submits to Bonaparte; Uprisings against French in Verona; French enter Venice; Cisalpine Republic established in Lombardy; Venice given to Austria. 1798 Roman Republic declared; Ferdinand IV enters Rome (later retaken by French); Abdication of Charles Emmanuel IV of Savoy. 1799 French occupation of Naples; Milan taken by Russians; Austrians enter Turin; Naples capitulates to Bourbons. 1801 Napoleon occupies Milan; Kingdom of Etruria founded by Napoleon in Tuscany; Treaty of Florence between France and Naples. 1802 Cisalpine Republic called Italian Republic; France annexes Piedmont. 1805 Napoleon crowns himself King of Italy; Ligurian Republic annexed to France; also Parma and Piacenza. 1806 Venetia annexed to Kingdom of Italy; Joseph Bonaparte declared King of the Two Sicilies. 1808 Joachim Murat becomes King of Naples; Papal States partly annexed to Kingdom of Italy. 1809 Napoleon annexes Rome and Papal States to French empire. 1814 Napoleon defeated; banished to Elba. 1820 Revolt in Naples. 1821 Revolt in Piedmont. 1831 Revolution in the Papal States; King Charles Albert becomes King of Sardinia; “Young Italy” founded by Mazzini. 1845 Pius IX becomes Pope. 1848 Uprisings in Palermo; Constitutional edict in Naples; Constitutional monarchy proclaimed in Piedmont; Constitution granted in Rome, Republic proclaimed with Mazzini as head. Successful revolution in Milan; Venice proclaimed a Republic; Charles Albert [Piedmont and Sardinia] invades Lombardy; Tuscan forces invade Lombardy; Naples constitution denied; Union of Venetia and Piedmont declared, soon overthrown; Battle of Custoza, Charles Albert defeated. 1849 Charles Albert abdicates in favor of Victor Emmanuel II; Sicilian revolution crushed by Naples; Austrians take Florence; Venice surrenders to Austria. 1850 Cavour becomes Prime Minister in Sardinia-Piedmont (Piemonte). 1852 Napoleon III becomes emperor of France. 1858 Meeting of Cavour and Napoleon III. 1859 War between Austria and Sardinia Piedmont; Austria defeated by Piemontese and French; Sardinia gains Lombardy. 1860 Tuscany and Emilia declare for union with Sardinia-Piedmont; Revolution in Sicily, Garibaldi lands and is victorious; invades Italy and gains victory; enters Naples Piemontese army under Victor Emmanuel take over from Garibaldi; Marche and Umbria vote for annexation to Piedmonte. 1861 Sicily and Naples vote to join Kingdom of Italy; Kingdom of Italy proclaimed. 1866 Italy joins Prussia in War against Austria; gains Venetia; 1870 Italian troops occupy Rome when French abandon city; 1871 (July) Rome made Capital of Kingdom ​ During the 18th century, intellectual changes began to dismantle traditional values and institutions. Liberal ideas from France and Britain spread rapidly, and from 1789 the French Revolution became the genesis of “liberal Italians”. A series of political and military events resulted in a unified kingdom of Italy in 1861. The settlements reached in 1815 at the Vienna Congress had restored Austrian domination over the Italian peninsula but had left Italy completely fragmented . The Congress had divided the territory among a number of European nations and the victors of the Napoleonic Wars. The Kingdom of Sardinia recovered Piedmont (Piemonte), Nice, and Savoy and acquired Genoa. ​ There were three major obstacles to unity at the time the congress took place, i.e. (a) the Austrian occupation of Lombardy and Venice in the north, (b) the principality under the sovereignty of the pope, i.e. the Papal States that controlled the center of the Italian peninsula; and (c) the existence of various states that had maintained independence, such as the Kingdom of Sardinia, also called Piedmont-Sardinia, which located at the French border had slowly expanded since the Middle Ages and was considered the most advanced state in Italy. The Kingdom of Sardinia consisted of the island of Sardinia and the region called Piedmont in northwestern Italy. The Kingdom of Sicily that occupied the island of Sicily and the entire southern half of the Italian peninsula . Other small states were the duchies of Toscana (Tuscany), Parma, and Modena. In each of these states, the monarchs (all relatives of the Habsburgs, the ruling family of Austria) exercised absolute powers of government. Giuseppe Mazzini Giuseppe Mazzini, an Italian patriot spearheaded a national revolutionary movement. Mazzini’s ideology of an independent integrated republic spread quickly among large segments of the Italian people. Revolutionary cells formed throughout the Italian peninsula. Massive reforms that took place during the 1840s in the Papal States, Lucca, Tuscany, and the Kingdom of Sardinia were intended to slow the revolutionary movements, instead these reforms (1846 and 1847) only intensified the resolve of the revolutionary cells culminating in the Revolutions of 1848, that spread to Germany, the Austrian Empire, France, and parts of northern Italy. ​ The first revolution on the Italian peninsula took place in the Kingdom of Sicily, which resulted in a constitution for the whole kingdom. An insurrection in 1848 caused pope Pius IX to flee Rome and a republic was proclaimed. King Charles Albert of Sardinia mobilized his army and marched to the assistance of Lombardy and joined in the war to drive the Austrians from Italian soil. ​ ​While it initially looked as if the independence and unity of Italy was a realistic possibility, the Austrians defeated the Piedmontese and Charles Albert had to abdicate. His son, Victor Emmanuel II, succeeded him in 1849. A new revolutionary leader, Giuseppe Garibaldi, could not avoid Rome’s destruction by the French in 1849. Only Sardinia held firm to their constitutional government. Count Camillo di Cavour became prime minister of the Kingdom of Sardinia In 1852 . It was his leadership and accommodating policies that led to the unification of Italy in little more than a decade. ​ Count of Cavour Cavour was able to persuade Napoleon to a secretly planned war against Austria. By early 1859, Cavour had caused a crisis that provoked the Austrians to send an ultimatum demanding Piedmontese disarmament. As part of the “plan”, Cavour rejected the ultimatum which led to the subsequent war with the Austrians.The French came to the aid of the Piedmontese and the Austrians were defeated in the two major battles of Magenta and Solferino. The Austrians were forced to surrender Lombardy, with its great city of Milan (my home town), to Napoleon III. Finally, in 1859, Napoleon transferred Lombardy to the sovereignty of Victor Emmanuel II. Following elections during 1859 and 1860, all northern states (of the Italian peninsula), except Venetia, which was still part of Austria, joined the Kingdom of Sardinia. Napoleon’s growing concern with respect to the sudden (large) size of his neighbor was resolved in part by the cessation of the Sardinian provinces of Savoy, near the Alps, and Nice, on the Mediterranean coast to France in 1860 . After 1860, the only French presence on the Italian peninsula was in the city of Rome, where French troops remained at the request of the pope. Giuseppe Garibaldi Italian nationalist revolutionary hero and leader in the struggle for Italian unification and independence. Born in 1807 in Nice, France, he joined Mazzini’s movement in 1833. In 1834 Garibaldi was ordered to seize a warship, but the plot was discovered by police and he was condemned to death. Giuseppe Garibaldi He escaped to South America, where he lived for 12 years. There he displayed unusual qualities of military leadership while participating in the revolt of the state of Rio Grande do Sul against Brazil, as well as later in a civil war in Uruguay. In 1848, Garibaldi traveled to the United States settled in Staten Island, New York, and later became a US citizen. ​ During the same year he returned to Italy and participated (again) in the movement for Italian freedom and unification, which became widely known as the Risorgimento (Italian for “revival”). Italy's History